Notranjska

Two Livestock Guarding Dogs behind an electric fence in Slovenia.

Notranjska

Case Studies | Slovenia

A map of Slovenia showing the case study area in the South.

Introduction

Situated in southwestern Slovenia, within the Notranjska region, the study area encompasses the municipalities of Pivka, Postojna, and Ilirska Bistrica. This area marks the transition between the Dinaric Mountains and the Karst plateau, forming part of the transboundary ecological corridor that connects Slovenia and Croatia. The landscape is characterised by extensive forests, karst plateaus, sinkholes, caves, and open pastures that have shaped local livelihoods for centuries. Traditional livestock farming persists alongside the growing nature-based tourism industry. The region is home to brown bears, grey wolves, and Eurasian lynx. In recent years, it has also become home to golden jackals, a neonative species that naturally expands its range in response to human-induced environmental changes. This makes it one of the few areas in Europe where four large carnivore species share human-dominated landscapes.

OVERVIEW

Municipalities

Pivka, Postojna, Ilirska Bistrica.

Geographical size

Approximately 1,150 km².

Human population

Approximately 31,500.

Number of livestock farmers

Approximately 520.

Livestock farming systems

Predominantly small-scale extensive cattle and sheep farms using natural pastures and forest edges; seasonal grazing in open karst grasslands.

Large carnivore species

Brown bear, wolf, Eurasian lynx, and golden jackal.

Wolf population

Four wolf packs.

SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT

The Notranjska region lies between the Karst plateau and the Snežnik forest complex, forming part of Slovenia’s most forested and sparsely populated areas. Forestry, small-scale livestock production and tourism are central to rural livelihoods. Forests cover over 70% of the area and are mainly managed by the Slovenia Forest Service (ZGS) and private owners. Agriculture focuses on mixed livestock production, haymaking, and dairy/meat processing at local cooperatives.

Rural communities face common challenges of depopulation, an ageing population, and limited farm profitability. Many residents seek additional income through forestry, nature-based tourism, or by commuting to nearby urban centres, such as Postojna or Ljubljana. Increasing eco- and wildlife tourism, including bear-watching and the Pivka intermittent lakes, provides diversification opportunities.

The region is part of the Dinaric large carnivore range, where coexistence measures and participatory governance have been promoted through EU LIFE projects (e.g. LIFE SLOWOLF, LIFE DINALP BEAR, LIFE Lynx) and Interreg projects (CARNIVORA DINARICA) in collaboration mainly with the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Forest Service, Chamber of Agriculture and Forestry of Slovenia, and local municipalities. Responsible practices in large carnivore-human coexistence are recognised and promoted through a Bear-Friendly Label awarded by the University of Ljubljana.

A howling livestock guarding dog behind a fence. A flock of sheep and snowy mountains in the background.

FARMING CONTEXT

Livestock systems consist mainly of extensive cattle and sheep grazing on open karst pastures, in forest clearings, and on higher plateaus. Local breeds of cattle and sheep, that are well adapted to the rugged conditions, are commonly used in the region. Farms are small and family-run, often combining livestock farming with forestry or other off-farm income. Seasonal grazing on communal mountain pastures is still practiced in the Snežnik and Javorniki ranges, although herd sizes are usually small (10–40 cattle, 30–200 sheep).

The use of livestock guarding dogs, electric fencing, and night enclosures has increased in recent years, due to support from LIFE projects and advisory services, as well as some systemic changes to subsidy systems. Best practice demonstration farms in Pivka and Ilirska Bistrica now showcase preventive measures and practices that promote coexistence. However, several challenges persist: high maintenance costs and limited labour availability, wolf and bear predation on unguarded livestock, bureaucratic delays in damage compensation procedures, abandonment of marginal pastures, accelerating reforestation, and, increasingly, tension between livestock protection and tourism in open landscapes.

Main challenges:

Ageing farming population and limited generational renewal.
Economic dependence on subsidies (CAP, Natura 2000 payments).
Lack of cooperation among smallholders.
Extreme weather patterns caused by climate change.

LOCAL CONFLICT ASSOCIATED WITH LARGE CARNIVORES

Number of attacks / damage cases: An average of 123 per year.

The Notranjska study area represents one of Slovenia’s human–carnivore conflict hotspots, reflecting both high densities of large carnivores and extensive livestock production.

Between 2021 and 2024, the municipalities of Pivka, Postojna, and Ilirska Bistrica recorded 492 verified damage events, primarily caused by wolves and brown bears. The majority of incidents involved small ruminants (142 cases) and cattle (118), while beekeeping (40) and fruit orchards (88) were also significantly affected. Damage to fodder (40) and other types of property (41) occurred less frequently.

During the same period, the total economic loss across the three municipalities amounted to approximately €313,000. The year 2022 saw the highest recorded damage (around €103,000), corresponding with a peak in livestock predation. The largest share of losses was associated with cattle (€103,000) and small ruminants (€89,000), followed by fodder and fruit crops. These figures highlight the ongoing economic pressure faced by farmers in the region and underline the importance of targeted preventive measures and coordinated management between agricultural and environmental sectors.

A flock of sheep running through a settlement.

Two livestock guarding dogs behind an electric fence.

Social conflict:

Farmers often express frustration with the administrative complexity and limited financial support for preventive measures. Diverging viewpoints persist between farmers, who generally advocate for stricter control of large carnivore populations, and conservation organisations, which promote non-lethal coexistence strategies. The latter have challenged government decisions to cull large carnivores in court on several occasions and with varying degrees of success.

Despite the progress achieved through measures implemented through projects and government action, social tensions remain visible, particularly following wolf attacks, bear sightings near villages, or during periods preceding political elections, when the issue can become highly polarised. Overall, public attitudes reflect a dual position: strong support for the long-term conservation of large carnivores, coupled with the expectation that the government will regulate their numbers through selective culling to prevent damage and maintain coexistence.

Funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Research Executive Agency. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them.